Most Influential Psychological Experiments in History

A Class Divided

Experiment Details: Jane Elliott’s famous experiment was inspired by the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the inspirational life that he led. The third grade teacher developed an exercise to help her Caucasian students understand the effects of racism and prejudice.

Elliott divided her class into two separate groups: blue-eyed students and brown-eyed students. On the first day, she labeled the blue-eyed group as the superior group and from that point forward they had extra privileges, leaving the brown-eyed children to represent the minority group. She discouraged the groups from interacting and singled out individual students to stress the negative characteristics of the children in the minority group. What this exercise showed was that the children’s behavior changed almost instantaneously. The group of blue-eyed students performed better academically and even began bullying their brown-eyed classmates. The brown-eyed group experienced lower self-confidence and worse academic performance. The next day, she reversed the roles of the two groups and the blue-eyed students became the minority group.

At the end of the experiment, the children were so relieved that they were reported to have embraced one another and agreed that people should not be judged based on outward appearances. This exercise has since been repeated many times with similar outcomes.

Bobo Doll Experiment

Experiment Details: During the early 1960s a great debate began regarding the ways in which genetics, environmental factors, and social learning shaped a child’s development. This debate still lingers and is commonly referred to as the Nature vs. Nurture Debate. Albert Bandura conducted the Bobo Doll Experiment to prove that human behavior is largely based upon social imitation rather than inherited genetic factors.

In his groundbreaking study he separated participants into three groups: one was exposed to a video of an adult showing aggressive behavior towards a Bobo doll;  another was exposed to video of a passive adult playing with the Bobo doll;  and the third formed a control group. Children watched their assigned video and then were sent to a room with the same doll they had seen in the video (with the exception of those in the control group). What the researcher found was that children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior towards the doll themselves, while the other groups showed little imitative aggressive behavior. For those children exposed to the aggressive model, the number of derivative physical aggressions shown by the boys was 38.2 and 12.7 for the girls.

The study also showed that boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than boys exposed to aggressive female models. When exposed to aggressive male models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by boys averaged 104 compared to 48.4 aggressive instances exhibited by boys who were exposed to aggressive female models. While the results for the girls show similar findings, the results were less drastic. When exposed to aggressive female models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by girls averaged 57.7 compared to 36.3 aggressive instances exhibited by girls who were exposed to aggressive male models. The results concerning gender differences strongly supported Bandura’s secondary prediction that children will be more strongly influenced by same-sex models.

The Milgram Experiment

Humans are trained to take direction from authority figures from very early in life. An experiment conducted in 1961 by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram measured this willingness to obey authority figures by instructing people to perform acts that conflicted with their morals. Participants were told to play the role of “teacher” and administer electric shocks to “the learner,” who was supposedly in a different room, every time they answered a question incorrectly. In reality, no one was actually being shocked. Instead, Milgram played recordings to make it sound like the learner was in a great deal of pain and wanted to end the experiment. Despite these protests, many participants continued the experiment when the authority figure urged them to, increasing the voltage after each wrong answer until some eventually administered what would be lethal electric shocks. Similar experiments conducted since the original have provided nearly identical results, indicating that people are willing to go against their consciences if they are being told to do so by authority figures.

Car Crash Experiment

Loftus and Palmer set out to prove just how deceiving memories can be. The 1974 Car Crash Experiment was designed to evaluate whether wording questions a certain way could influence a participant’s recall by twisting their memories of a specific event.

The participants watched slides of a car accident and were asked to describe what had happened as if they were eyewitnesses to the scene. The participants were put into two groups and each group was questioned using different wording such as “how fast was the car driving at the time of impact?” versus “how fast was the car going when it smashed into the other car?” The experimenters found that the use of different verbs affected the participants’ memories of the accident, showing that memory can be easily distorted.

This research suggests that memory can be easily manipulated by questioning technique, meaning that information gathered after the event can merge with original memory causing incorrect recall or reconstructive memory. The addition of false details to a memory of an event is now referred to as confabulation. This concept has very important implications for the questions used in police interviews of eyewitnesses.

The Little Albert Experiment

At Johns Hopkins University in 1920, John B. Watson conducted a study of classical conditioning, a phenomenon that pairs a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus until they produce the same result. This type of conditioning can create a response in a person or animal towards an object or sound that was previously neutral. Classical conditioning is commonly associated with Ivan Pavlov, who rang a bell every time he fed his dog until the mere sound of the bell caused his dog to salivate.

 Fantz’s Looking Chamber

The study conducted by Robert L. Fantz is among the simplest, yet most important in the field of infant development and vision. In 1961, when this experiment was conducted, there very few ways to study what was going on in the mind of an infant. Fantz realized that the best way to figure out this puzzle was to simply watch the actions and reactions of infants. He understood the fundamental factor that if there is something of interest near humans, they generally look at it.

To test this concept, Fantz set up a display board with two pictures attached. On one was a bulls-eye and on the other was the sketch of a human face. This board was hung in a chamber where a baby could lie safely underneath and see both images. Then, from behind the board, invisible to the baby, he peeked through a hole to watch what the baby looked at. This study showed that a two-month old baby looked twice as much at the human face as it did at the bulls-eye. This suggests that human babies have some powers of pattern and form selection. Before this experiment it was thought that babies looked out onto a chaotic world of which they could make little sense.

Hawthorne Effect

The Hawthorne Effect came from a 1955 study conducted by Henry Landsberger. This effect is a simple premise that human subjects in an experiment change their behavior simply because they are being studied.

Landsberger performed the study by analyzing data from experiments conducted between 1924 and 1932, by Elton Mayo, at the Hawthorne Works near Chicago. The company had commissioned studies to evaluate whether the level of light within a building changed the productivity of the workers. What Mayo found was that the level of light made no difference in productivity, as the workers increased their output whenever the amount of light was switched from a low level to a high level, or vice versa. The researchers noticed a tendency that the workers’ level of efficiency increased when any variable was manipulated. The study showed that the output changed simply because the workers were aware that they were under observation. The conclusion was that the workers felt important because they were pleased to be singled out, and increased productivity as a result. Being singled out was the factor dictating increased productivity, not the changing lighting levels, or any of the other factors that they experimented upon. The Hawthorne Effect has become one of the hardest inbuilt biases to eliminate or factor into the design of any experiment in psychology and beyond.


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What do you enjoy most about working as a psychologist?

Psychologists investigate human behavior, delving into how people think, how they learn, and how they develop emotionally and socially. They use a wide range of methods to conduct research on large groups, specific populations and individuals. A psychologist may control lab experiments, assess clients on-site, or evaluate school tests for learning disabilities.

Psychologists also assist people suffering from trauma, mental disorders or substance abuse problems. They may work with individual clients to understand root causes and offer treatment. Most research psychologists work in universities or government agencies. Depending on career goals, professionals may opt to move into a specialty area that fires their imaginations and promises fulfilling work

Psychologists work in an ever-expanding field  and possess many skills applicable to other disciplines, but typically they can be separated into two basic types: practitioners and researchers.

On a professional side, they enjoy the professional freedom associated with being a psychologist. As a psychologist, they have to option to be a therapist, professor, researcher, supervisor, consultant, advocate or policy maker. they can work for them self, a college, a business, or the government. They I can wear many different hats and I appreciate the level of job security associated with being able work in a variety of settings.

They need to develop a host of professional and personal skills

Observation

Adhering to ethical standards

Persuasion

Patience

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Applied psychology

An understanding of knowledge and knowledge management (KM) can be best done in the background of
Oriental Psychology, Psychology of Consciousness and Integrative Psychology. Any attempt at understanding and

applying knowledge or knowledge management that ignores these disciplines would only end up in confusion as
can be seen by the current scene in KM.
To quote Prof.V.George Mathew:
?Consciousness has relevance for all sciences, as it is related to philosophical issues and the
model of man. It is empirical, but open to descriptive, theoretical and insightful understanding. In the
21st century psychology may well be redefined as the study of consciousness and all psychology
may be rewritten in that perspective. The study of consciousness may also serve to integrate many
areas of psychology and other sciences.?



We will not, however, pursue this historical path, but enter upon the opposite
one. We wish to discover the meaning of dreams as preparation for the study
of the neuroses. This inversion is justified, for the study of dreams is not only
the best preparation for that of the neuroses, but the dream itself is also a
neurotic symptom, and in fact one which possesses for us the incalculable
advantage of occurring in all normals. Indeed, if all human beings were well
and would dream, we could gain from their dreams almost all the insight to
which the study of the neuroses has led.
Thus it is that the dream becomes the object of psychoanalytic research—
again an ordinary, little-considered phenomenon, apparently of no practical
value, like the errors with which, indeed, it shares the character of occurring
in normals. But otherwise the conditions are rather less favorable for our
work. Errors had been neglected only by science, which had paid little
attention to them; but at least it was no disgrace to occupy one's self with
them. People said there are indeed more important things, but perhaps
something may come of it. Preoccupation with the dream, however, is not
merely impractical and superfluous, but actually ignominious; it carries the
odium of the unscientific, awakens the suspicion of a personal leaning
towards mysticism.

A certain excess in judgment may make us suspicious. The objections to the
dream as an object of research obviously go too far. The question of
insignificance we have already had to deal with in discussing errors. We said
to ourselves that important matters may manifest themselves through small
signs. As concerns the indefiniteness of the dream, it is after all a
characteristic like any other. One cannot prescribe the characteristics of an
object. Moreover, there are clear and definite dreams. And there are other
objects of psychiatric research which suffer from the same trait of
indefiniteness, e.g., many compulsion ideas, with which even respectable and
esteemed psychiatrists have occupied themselves. I might recall the last case
which occurred in my practice. The patient introduced himself to me with the
words, "I have a certain feeling as though I had harmed or had wished to
harm some living thing—a child?—no, more probably a dog—perhaps pushed
it off a bridge—or something else." We can overcome to some degree the
difficulty of uncertain recollection in the dream if we determine that exactly
what the dreamer tells us is to be taken as his dream, without regard to
anything which he has forgotten or may have changed in recollection. And
finally, one cannot make so general an assertion as that the dream is an
unimportant thing. We know from our own experience that the mood in which
one wakes up after a dream may continue throughout the whole day.

Motivation

Human beings spend most of their time during the day engaged in actions.
They drive cars, raise children, have vocations, spend time with hobbies, go on
vacations, gamble, take unnecessary risks, play, and so forth. Why do we do what
we do? This is the great question associated with the subject of motivation.
The word motivation is related to words such as motor, motion, and emotion.
(Emotion is discussed in chapter 8.) All of these words imply some form of activity, some kind of movement. And this is one of the principal features of life—a
kind of restless movement that appears to arise from sources within the organism.
These sources are called motives.
A motive is a state of physiological or psychological arousal that is assumed to
play a causal role in behavior. Physiological arousal refers to such states as hunger
and thirst. Psychological arousal refers to motives such as the need for achievement. The two factors, physiological and psychological, of course interact. For
example, a biological drive such as sex tends to interact with a psychological
motive such as the need to be loved.
It is important to note that from the point of view of psychology as a science, a
motive is an intervening variable. An intervening variable is a variable used to
explain behavior. It is assumed to reside within the organism and “intervene”
between stimulus and response. An intervening variable can’t be seen or otherwise
directly observed. It is inferred from studying behavior. If we see someone buying a
sandwich in a snack bar, we may infer that the individual is hungry. However, he or
she may in fact be buying the sandwich for a friend. The important point is that when
we act as investigators of the behavior of others, we do not experience their motives.92 PSYCHOLOGY
(a) The word motivation is related to words such as motor, motion, and emotion. All of
these words imply some form of activity, some kind of .
(b) From the point of view of psychology as a science, a motive is an .
Answers: (a) movement; (b) intervening variable.
Biological Drives: The Need for Food and Water
We would not do anything at all if we were not alive. That is why in some sense it
can be argued that the root cause of all behavior can be traced to a group of biological drives. Biological drives are inborn drives, and their principal feature is that
they impel us to attend to our tissue needs, to maintain ourselves as organisms. The
basic theme associated with biological drives is survival. We would die fairly quickly
if we did not follow the dictates of our biological drives on a fairly regular basis.
The biological drives are familiar. The following are frequently specified:
hunger, thirst, sleep, temperature, oxygen hunger, pain, and sex. Note that if the
word hunger appears without an adjective in front of it, then the word refers to the
hunger for food. Also note how any of the biological drives can act as a motive.
For example, if your temperature level is such that you feel cold, you might be
motivated to put a coat on.
Most of the drives direct us toward a stimulus. We seek food if we are hungry.
We seek water if we are thirsty. Pain is unlike the other drives in this particular
regard. Pain directs us away from a stimulus. It motivates us to escape from the
source of the pain.
Sex also has a unique status among the biological drives. The general theme
of the biological drives, as already noted, is survival. Usually we think of this as
the survival of the individual. However, in the case of sex, survival is generalized
beyond the individual. The long-run purpose of sex is to assure the survival of
the species.


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INTRO

Have you ever picked up a book and within the first two pages,
decided it wasn't going to be good? I have done it! And I know that many
others have done it as well. It’s not something to be proud of, though as a
writer you must write for the majority. It is crucial to make your story
interesting at the beginning, or your readers will not stick around to find
out how good it is.
How do you hook the reader to insure they continue reading? It’s
fairly simple actually, you need to incorporate and understand change.

psychology and you

The word psychology has had several different meanings from ancient to modern times. Here is its present definition:Psychology is the science that studies the behavior of organisms. This definition should guide you throughout your study of this
book.
Three words in the definition merit special attention:(1) science, (2) behavior,
and (3) organisms. Modern psychology is considered a science because it bases its
conclusions on data, information obtained by systematic observations. The
research methods used by psychology are covered in chapter 2.
Behavior has three aspects: (1) cognitive processes, (2) emotional states, and
(3) actions. Cognitive processes refer to what an individual thinks. Emotional
states refer to what an individual feels. Actions refer to what an individual
does.
An organism is any living creature. Consequently, the behavior of dogs, rats,
pigeons, and monkeys can be legitimately included in the study of psychology.
Such organisms have indeed been subjects in psychology experiments. However,
traditionally the principal focus of psychology has been humans. When animals
are used in experiments, the implicit goal is often to explore how such basic
processes as learning and motivation, as studied in animals, can cast a light on our
understanding of human behavior.






It has been said that psychology has a long past and a short history. This statement
should be taken to mean that although psychology has its roots in philosophy, as a
scientific discipline psychology is only a little over 120 years old. As noted earlier,
the roots of psychology can be easily traced back about 2,400 years to ancient Greek
philosophers. However, the beginning of scientific psychology is usually associated
with the date 1879, the year that a German scientist named Wilhelm Wundt
founded the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany.
Modern psychology arose in the context of what are known as schools of
psychology. The concept of a school of psychology can be easily understood by
thinking of a school of fish. In this case the word school is used similarly to the
word group. A school, or group, of fish follows a leader fish. So it is with a school
of psychology. There is a leader and a group of followers. The school has a viewpoint and a set of important assumptions.


Today psychology is witnessing remarkable growth in quantitative terms. The number of
journals, number of books published, number of practicing psychologists, organizations of psychologists and their professional bodies, and differentiation of the discipline is really mind-boggling.
It is impossible to remember all the specialties and sub specialties of psychology. All this is really
impressive for new science. The growth of psychology in the developed nations of world and
developing countries, which have a history of colonization, show many parallels, if one goes by the
themes, problems, methods, and findings. A majority of Indian psychologists, for instance, have
dedicated their energy, time and money to replicate various phenomena in various combinations and
permutations, the results of which, fortunately or unfortunately, are neither read nor used by our
Indian colleagues in teaching or research. For our big brothers living in the developed countries this
effort lacks any value and remains unregistered. There are a few exceptions, which have been able to
receive some attention. On the whole the quality of research and publications is of mixed type (see for
details Misra, Prakash, & Varma, 1999 ; Pandey, 2000). At times that gives a feeling that all is well.
However, when we look for substance in terms of theoretical contribution, creativity or relevance the
psychologists from developing countries often have to suffer from serious discomfort. The mechanical, Euro-American model of the so called mainstream psychology, has little to offer in terms insights
in the realm of theory and or practice which can be reassuring and inspiring. We suffer from lack of
self-confidence, academic self worth, and often engage meaningless rote memorization of things
having limited resemblance with our life world. The questions of authentic understanding or growth
of knowledge are hardly addressed to because as a true scientist we limit ourselves to the" context of
justification" and the "context of discovery" remains ignored. The status quo is maintained. In the
name of doing science the intellectual courage needed for questioning, innovative thinking and
creativity is given a back seat. The rituals of the religion called science continue.


There is need to question psychology’s self understanding as a repository of knowledge that
explains the world yet is somehow detached from it. The alternative vision is recognizes the complexity, uncertainty and contextual specificity. It recognizes a world where knowledge is itself socially
constructed, fragmented, foundationless and validated by its usefulness rather than its scientific rigor
(Gergen, 1999; Kvale 1992). Our nature of being is embedded within historical and cultural processes. However, the extra-discursive, material and embodied aspects of our being also need attention (Nightingale & Cromby, 1999). The debates on the place of culture in psychology (Berry, 1999;
Misra & Gergen, 1993) and psychology in cultural context (European Psychologist, 2000: Gergen,
Gulerce, Lock, & Misra, 1996) are drawing attention of psychologists. The Asian Journal of Psychology (December 2000) has Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology (2001) have published special issues
addressing the related concerns. The interface of Psychology and Culture is being explored by a
journal of the same name. . The use of qualitative methods is also increasing. These methods are
sensitive to culture and subjectivity and overcome the problem of power relations since they rely on
participative, cooperative and constructive processes in the research process. It is hoped that these
moves shall help to develop a human science of psychology in which cultural plurality will be
addressed more authentically.






abnormal behavior is a major public health problem. Depression is sometimes called the common cold of mental disability. Chronic anxiety in the form of
persistent worry is approximately as common as depression. About 1 percent of
adults suffer from schizophrenia, a severe mental disorder. This percentage translates into a figure approaching 2 million people in the United States alone. Conservatively, about one in ten adults have some kind of definable mental health
problem.
The toll on job performance and family life is considerable. Consequently, it
is of value to have some reliable information about abnormal behavior. This chapter defines abnormal behavior and describes some of the major pathological syndromes associated with it. The next chapter presents various kinds of therapy used
to treat mental disorders.







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Best psychologist in the world 

B. F. Skinner

B.F. Skinner's staunch behaviorism made him a dominating force in psychology and therapy techniques based on his theories are still used extensively today, including behavior modification and token economies. Skinner is remembered for his concepts of operant conditioning and schedules of reinforcement. 

Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born March 20, 1904, in the small Pennsylvania town of Susquehanna.  His father was a lawyer, and his mother a strong and intelligent housewife.  His upbringing was old-fashioned and hard-working.
Burrhus was an active, out-going boy who loved the outdoors and building things, and actually enjoyed school.  His life was not without its tragedies, however.  In particular, his brother died at the age of 16 of a cerebral aneurysm.
Burrhus received his BA in English from Hamilton College in upstate New York.  He didn’t fit in very well, not enjoying the fraternity parties or the football games.  He wrote for school paper, including articles critical of the school, the faculty, and even Phi Beta Kappa!  To top it off, he was an atheist -- in a school that required daily chapel attendance.
He wanted to be a writer and did try, sending off poetry and short stories.  When he graduated, he built a study in his parents’ attic to concentrate, but it just wasn’t working for him.
Ultimately, he resigned himself to writing newspaper articles on labor problems, and lived for a while in Greenwich Village in New York City as a “bohemian.”  After some traveling, he decided to go back to school, this time at Harvard.  He got his masters in psychology in 1930 and his doctorate in 1931, and stayed there to do research until 1936.

John B. Watson

John B. Watson was a pioneering psychologist who played an important role in developing behaviorism. Watson believed that psychology should primarily be scientific observable behavior. He is remembered for his research on the conditioning process, as well as the Little Albert experiment, in which he demonstrated that a child could be conditioned to fear a previously neutral stimulus. His research also revealed that this fear could be generalized to other similar objects.

The "Little Albert" Experiment

In his most famous and controversial experiment, known today as the"Little Albert" experiment, John Watson and a graduate assistant named Rosalie Rayner conditioned a small child to fear a white rat. They accomplished this by repeatedly pairing the white rat with a loud, frightening clanging noise. They were also able to demonstrate that this fear could be generalized to other white, furry objects. The ethics of the experiment are often criticized today, especially because the child's fear was never deconditioned.

In 2009, researchers were able to identify Little Albert as a boy named Douglas Merritte. Questioning what happened to the child had intrigued many for decades. Sadly, the researchers found that the child died at the age of six of hydrocephalus, a medical condition in which fluid builds up inside the skull.

In 2012, researchers presented evidence that Merritte suffered from neurological impairments at the time of the Little Albert experiment and that Watson may have knowingly misrepresented the boy as a "healthy" and "normal" infant.

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud (May 6, 1856 to September 23, 1939) was an Austrian neurologist who developed psychoanalysis, a method through which an analyst unpacks unconscious conflicts based on the free associations, dreams and fantasies of the patient. His theories on child sexuality, libido and the ego, among other topics, were some of the most influential academic concepts of the 20th century.

Albert Bandura

Albert Bandura's work is considered part of the cognitive revolution in psychology that began in the late 1960s. His social learning theory stressed the importance of observational learning, imitation, and modeling.

"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do," Bandura explained in his 1977 book ​"Social Learning Theory."Professor Bandura is an innovative scholar whose pioneering work in social cognitive theory has served as a rich resource for academics, practitioners, and policy makers alike across disciplinary lines. His illustrative career includes groundbreaking work across a broad range of areas. His seminal research on social modeling expanded our view of human learning and the growing primacy of this mode of learning in this electronic era. His later research on self-regulatory mechanisms, and the influential role of perceived self-efficacy in self-development, adaptation and change, laid the theoretical foundation for his theory of human agency. These diverse programs of research blend his theoretical interests with an abiding concern for the use of our knowledge for human enlightenment and betterment.

Bandura's contributions to psychology have been recognized in the countless scientific awards and honorary degrees he has received. In addittion he was elected to the Order of Canada, the highest honor for national distinguished achievements, the National Academy of Medicine, and the National Medal of Science, the most prestigious scientific award in the United States, bestowed by President Obama.

Carl Rogers

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist who agreed with the main assumptions of Abraham Maslow, but added that for a person to "grow", they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood).

Without these, relationships and healthy personalities will not develop as they should, much like a tree will not grow without sunlight and water.

Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goals, wishes, and desires in life. When, or rather if they did so, self actualization took place.  This was one of Carl Rogers most important contributions to psychology, and for a person to reach their potential a number of factors must be satisfied.

Rogers rejected the deterministic nature of both psychoanalysis and behaviorism and maintained that we behave as we do because of the way we perceive our situation. "As no one else can know how we perceive, we are the best experts on ourselves."

Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-actualize - i.e., to fulfill one's potential and achieve the highest level of 'human-beingness' we can.  Like a flower that will grow to its full potential if the conditions are right, but which is constrained by its environment, so people will flourish and reach their potential if their environment is good enough.

However, unlike a flower, the potential of the individual human is unique, and we are meant to develop in different ways according to our personality.  Rogers believed that people are inherently good and creative.

They become destructive only when a poor self-concept or external constraints override the valuing process.  Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence.

This means that self-actualization occurs when a person’s “ideal self” (i.e., who they would like to be) is congruent with their actual behavior (self-image).  Rogers describes an individual who is actualizing as a fully functioning person. The main determinant of whether we will become self-actualized is childhood experience.

Sudhir Kakar

Kakar spent his early childhood near Sargodha, now in Pakistan.^[2] and also in Rohtak, Haryana state; his father was an additional district magistrate during the British Raj and during the partition of India, and the family moved quite a bit from city to city.^[2][3] At age eight he was enrolled as a boarder in Modern School, New Delhi;^[2] he would later write about homosexual encounters in the school dormitories.^[2] He next attended St. Edward's School, Shimla.^[2] He began his Intermediate Studies at Maharaja's College, Jaipur in 1953 after which his family sent him to Ahmedabad, Gujarat, where Kakar lived with his aunt, Kamla Chowdhury, and attended engineering college.^[2] After his B.E. degree inMechanical Engineering from Gujarat University 1958, Kakar obtained a master's equivalent in business administration (Dipl.-Kfm.) at the University of Mannheim (1960-64), and aDoctor's degree in Economics at the University of Vienna.^[4] He began his training in psychoanalysis at the University of Frankfurt's Sigmund-Freud Institute in 1971.

In 1975, Sudhir Kakar moved to Delhi with his aunt, Kamla.^[2] Kakar now resides in Goa and is married to Katharina, a writer and a scholar of comparative religions.

works

Non-fiction

• Mad and Divine: Spirit and Psyche in the Modern World
• Inner World: A Psycho-Analytic Study of Childhood and Society in India: Psychoanalytic Study of Childhood and Society in India, OUP India, 2Rev Ed (14 October 1982)ISBN 0-19-561305-8 (10), ISBN 978-0-19-561305-6 (13)
• Shamans, Mystics, And Doctors
• Tales Of Love, Sex And Danger
• Intimate Relations
• The Colors Of Violence
• The Indians
  • Die Inder. Porträt einer Gesellschaft (2006)^[10]
• Kamasutra
• Frederick Taylor
• Understanding Organizational Behavior
• Conflict And Choice
• Identity And Adulthood
• The Analyst And The Mystic
• La Folle Et Le Saint
• Culture And Psyche
• The Indian Psyche
• The Essential Writings Of Sudhir Kakar
• A Book of Memory, 2011

Fiction

• The Ascetic Of Desire
• Indian Love Stories
• Ecstasy
• Mira And The Mahatma
• The Crimson Throne
• The Devil Take Love
• 
  

• Kishor Phadke

• Kishor Moreshwar Phadke (born 20 February 1936), also known as K. M. Phadke, is an Indian psychologist, practitioner and trainer in Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). He held M.A. degree in Psychology from Pune University. He is first Indian psychologist who enjoys the unique distinction of being a Fellow and Supervisor of Albert Ellis Institute, New York City. He is best known as a pioneer of REBT in India. Due to his distinguished contributions to REBT, Indian psychologists consigned a unique title to his therapy - Ellis-Phadke therapy.^[2][3] He has authored 9 Marathi books, several popular articles and papers and co-authored 5 English books.

Girishwar Misra

Girishwar Misra (born 21 April 1951) is a social scientist, psychologist and author from India. He obtained an M.A. and Ph.D. in Psychology from Gorakhpur University. He started his career as lecturer in psychology at Lecturer, Gorakhpur University in 1970. Thereafter he remained Reader at Allahabad University (1979-1983), Professor, Bhopal University (1983-1993), before joining as Professor, Delhi University in 1993, where he served for the rest of his career.^[1]

In 1991-1992, Misra was a Fulbright Fellow in the United States at Swarthmore College and at the University of Michigan.^[2][3]:225

He is the vice chancellor of Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya in Wardha, Maharashtra, India.^[4]

Professor Misra is the chief editor of the fifth ICSSR Survey of Psychology published by Indian Council of Social Science Research(ICSSR).^[1] For 15 years, until the end of 2015, he was editor of Psychological Studies,^[5][6] a journal of the National Academy of Psychology, India.^[7] As of 2016, he was continuing as the special issue editor of Psychological Studies.^[8]

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